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How to write - and not write... |
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How to write is an endless theme, and no matter how good you get
at it, you can always get better. Below, you will find 22
short, elementary rules for what you should and should not do as an (academic)
writer. In time, I will fill out my description of each rule
with examples, or I may add new rules or merge several rules
into one. For now, read them as they stand, and consult other online resources for more detailed
advice. Click
here to see some good links and references. Before
you continue, please observe Rule 0:
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Do not plagiarize!
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To plagiarize is to copy text from another source without giving
a bibliographical reference. Note that
it is also considered
plagiarism:
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If you copy
text without reference from
a paper or article that you yourself have written. |
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If you do not literally copy the text, but
"rewrite" it, e.g. by exchanging a word here and there,
dividing up sentences differently, changing the word
order, etc. |
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If you copy
text from the Internet without reference (click
here for instructions on how to reference internet
sources). |
For more
information about plagiarism, click here.
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Formal rules and formatting
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Style and actual writing
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1.
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Use a spell checker or dictionary
if you don't know how to spell a word. Do not misspell names! It
makes a very bad impression.
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12.
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Develop a personal style that is
neutral and clear. Avoid mannerisms and superlatives. Write
short sentences if you are not 200% certain that you know how to
write long sentences correctly and clearly.
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2.
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Mark your paragraphs visibly -
with
indents or double line spacing. If you use single line spacing
without indents, it is often impossible to see where paragraphs
begin and end.
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13.
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Write concretely, directly and
simply. Use concrete examples to illustrate your points.
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3.
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Use page numbers in your document.
(You turn page numbers on in MS Word by clicking: Insert >
Page numbers.)
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14.
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Always specify who is
saying what in your text: Who is the subject?
Avoid passive verbs and impersonal
expressions.
There is always a subject,
and you should always tell us explicitly who the subject is!
This is particularly important when you switch between subjects
(e.g. when your own argument ends and you start referring to
another author's argument).
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4.
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Use as few footnotes as possible.
Nine out of ten times, footnotes should either be included in
the main text or deleted. It is not the amount of
information you include in your text that makes it good, but the
quality of its argument.
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15.
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Divide your text into paragraphs.
Let each paragraph treat one topic. Start the paragraph
with a sentence indicating what the topic
is and how it connects to the topic of the preceeding paragraph.
Conclude the paragraph with a sentence that sums up the topic
and points on to the topic of the next paragraph.
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5.
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Use consistent bibliographical
standards, also when you use internet
sources.
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16.
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Argue through comparison and
contrast ("... X is similar to Y in this respect,
but different in that..."). When the reader may
doubt your meaning,
use negation ("I am not saying that...").
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6.
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Divide up your text with
subtitles. Choose clear and explicit subtitles that give the
reader real knowledge about what the titled section is
about.
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17.
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If you
are uncertain, say so - do not hide behind vagueness. If you make
a point, argue it, but critically and realistically. Do not make
exaggerated claims. Be nuanced and balanced in your judgements.
(But don't be too meek either!) |
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7.
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Keep the reader oriented ("as
I
have just said... as we saw in the previous chapter... I will now go on to
discuss a side issue, but we will return to the main topic in
the next section...").
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18.
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Delete unnecessary words, phrases
and paragraphs. Don't pretend that you are saying something when
in fact you are not.
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8.
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Connect sections and paragraphs
with bridges ("Now that I have discussed X, it is relevant
to go on to discuss Y, because X and Y are related in the
following way...").
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19.
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Theories are analytical, but also stylistic,
tools. You can play around with them, use them to obtain
specific effects, modify and refine them. Just tell us what
you're doing - and tell us clearly!
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9.
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Do not repeat yourself without good
reason! And if you have good reason, make sure that the
reader understands what your reason is.
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20.
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Read your text aloud - and listen
to it. It should flow, be musical. If it doesn't sound good, it
seldom is good.
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10.
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Do not introduce analytical
concepts if you are not going to use them actively in your text.
Explain (don't "define")
analytical concepts if you decide to use them.
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21.
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Don't write for the teacher -
write for a real audience. Never assume that the
reader is smarter than you and knows it all! It is your
responsibility to explain things.
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11.
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A quotation
should always be framed by introductory and concluding text that
integrates it into the argument in your text. This is necessary,
because the quotation, in its original context, was part of an
argument that is always different than yours. |
22.
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Break the rules - but only if you
are very sure that you know what you're doing!
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More
advice about writing...
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Dr. Sascha L. Goluboff at the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Washington and Lee
University, has created a short page with some good advice for
students:
http://home.wlu.edu/~goluboffs/grammar_tips.html
Other good writing
manuals may be found at:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/index2.html
(A very comprehensive manual of academic writing.)
www.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/org/s/ssp/GPF/reference/svepaper.html
(How to write a paper: Short and to the point. - BROKEN LINK,
unfortunately)
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2768168/how_to_write_a_paper_essay_report_without.html?cat=4
("for those of you who rebel at the idea of a step-by-step
approach to writing a paper")
http://www.paulhensel.org/teachpowers.html
(Another short and clear collection of good advice. Excellent!)
If you want to
learn more, you should consult a manual of style. Click
here for a good reference.
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More about
plagiarism...
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In academic writing plagiarism is considered a serious
offence, since it undermines the entire system of scientific
authorship. At most universities, you will flunk (or worse)
if you willfully break this rule. More fundamentally, by
plagiarizing, you deprive yourself of the opportunity to learn
to write in your own voice and think independently. To
avoid plagiarism, put your books away before you start writing.
If you need to look something up, do so. But put away the book
and close it before you continue.
Internet plagiarism is today
rather easy to detect. There are sophisticated commercial
services devoted to detecting plagiarism (see http://www.plagiarism.org/),
but in most cases it is enough to copy a characteristic sentence
from the text in question and paste it into Google in quotes. If
the sentence exists on the Internet, you will see it
immediately. Often, even a partial sentence will do. Try pasting
the following (including the quotation marks) into Google:
"After some years in Thailand". A common enough
phrase, you might think, but it only gets a few true hits on
Google.
Even without such tools, an
experienced reader will very often notice plagiarism
intuitively, since the copied passage will almost always betray
differences in style and phrasing, which may be difficult to
describe, but which signal very effectively that a passage is
written by a different author.
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